Introduction

Crew 15 moved into the MDRS on 15 March 2003 for a two week rotation. The crew, made up of American, Irish, and Canadian nationalities, consisted of David Fuller, Commander; Jody Tinsley, Geologist and Health and Safety Officer; April Childress, Crew Archivist; Derek O'Keeffe, Engineer; Kim Binsted, Computer and Communications Specialist; Tim O'Connor, Astronomer and Biologist.

The crew was introduced, by email, to one another, on 19 February 2003, so we had only about three weeks to find out about one another, discuss research topics and expectations, and start planning our activities. In the end we decided to lay out general guidelines and rough out what we wanted to accomplish, and plan in more detail once we arrived.

Von Moltke, a Prussian general, once said that no battle plans survive first contact with the enemy. So it was with Crew 15. Kim's flight from LAX was delayed two hours, so we left Salt Lake City later than planned. By the time we got to Hanksville, the sun had set, and we made the final drive into the desert in the dark.

On arrival at the Hab, we found that the main 20 kW generator had failed the previous night, and the Hab was on a strict power budget using the backup 7 kW generator. The backup generator also required us to shut down and refuel it every 12 hours. Our delay also meant that the University of Michigan people had only about an hour to introduce us to their Mars analog rover, Everest. It's a wonderful machine, and the UM people had obviously spent many hours developing it.

During our first full day in the Hab, we began our adjustment to this strange environment. One of the most dramatic adjustments was coping with a reduced amount of power. We quickly learned that, for example, we could not run the coffee maker and the electric hot plate at the same time. We also found that a general clean up and straightening up was needed before we could continue with our own plans.

We dedicated our first two days to learning Hab systems, cleaning and organizing the tools and equipment, and planning our science schedule. Most of the team, experienced as they were in research and academia, had not had any experience with space missions or the challenges of planning and executing tasks in an operational environment.

One of the first things David did was to sketch out how such operations worked, and likely scenarios we would encounter. We quickly learned some of the more mundane practices, such as radio protocol. Other skills, such as moving around in a space suit, and learning to work in heavy gloves, would only come with practice and experience.

Science, like operations and war, usually suffers from the first contact with the enemy. Although much preparation went into their experiments, our scientists had to do much replanning and fiddling with equipment once they got here.

Computer Science

Kim's experiment involved field testing of a Sensor Network. The goal of the Sensor Network project is to test out the node triage protocol. "Node triage" refers to a set of heuristics for dealing with sensor network problems, such as depleted batteries, equipment failures, temporary conditions (such as clouds interfering with solar cells), node movement (due to wind, slipping down a slope, etc.) and so on. For each problem there may or may not be a solution (e.g. waiting for the condition to pass, self-repair, powering down and recharging, sending a human or robot to repair/replace the node etc.). Also, problems can be more or less serious, and nodes can vary in importance (e.g. if there are many nodes in a particular area, losing one might not matter), and solutions can vary in cost (e.g. sending a human on an EVA to a remote area is very costly). Our system is intended to a) take data from the sensors, b) detect problems, c) identify potential solutions, d) sort problems and solutions by priority and cost, e) initiate any solutions the node can carry out by itself, and f) recommend more expensive solutions, such as robot missions or EVAs.

The current prototype is very simple. It involves a node (an iPAQ handheld computer with a dual compact flash expansion sleeve, a data logger with two sensors, and a GPS) and a base station (a notebook computer), which communicate via wireless (802.11b). The base station takes data from the node: sensors (light and temperature), GPS, and battery level. It diagnoses problems to do with battery level. If the battery is being used up too quickly, it instructs the node to send data less often. If the battery level is critical, it tells the node to send all data, then power down.

Despite significant problems with the equipment (the sensors/iPAQ interface, in particular) that took the bulk of the two weeks to solve, Kim managed to test the system, and demonstrate the basic principle of sensor triage. Over the next few months, the data from this evaluation will be used to improve the system. Also, while the rest of the system was being debugged, Kim used the sensors to take detailed readings of temperature and light levels in the GreenHab, which we hope will be of use in getting the GreenHab up and running again.

Geology

The majority of our time, and all EVAs, focused on the geology of the area and how it might pertain to Mars. Jody spent most of his non-EVA time pouring over maps and previous reports, planning excursions into the desert. During Crew 15's rotation here at the MDRS we performed 12 EVAs, two initial training EVAs followed by ten EVAs dedicated to geological exploration and sampling. This record is very good for a crew with only one geologist because there were numerous research projects ongoing, and also because there were many maintenance issues that required our attention.

During the course of these geological EVAs we ranged from the Hab by foot and ATV over an area extending approximately 7 kilometers north, 4 kilometers south, 4 kilometers east, and 3 kilometers west. We traveled up in geologic section to the base of the Ferron Sandstone beneath Skyline Rim and down in section to the Summerville Formation in Candor Chasma Canyon. We explored and investigated the various members of the varied Morrison Formation and the distinctive Dakota Sandstone. Through our work here we have gained a wonderful understanding of and appreciation for the rocks in the MDRS area, rocks which record the time which brackets the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary.

We have collected a suite of samples from the sandstone and conglomerate units in the area and have plotted many outcrop locations on a paper copy of the Skyline Rim 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle. We've also noted these locations in NAD27 UTM coordinates throughout the geologic reports. In addition, we have collected several interesting samples of various lithologies as surface float, and we have located-in one place only-evidence of movement along a joint surface, a small fault. Finally, we have made several observations on weathering differences on north-facing versus south-facing slopes.

One of the goals Jody had for this rotation was to look for perched basalt boulders, which would imply times in the past with vast amounts of surface water. Although we found rounded basalt boulders in modern-day washes, this doesn't necessarily imply any higher flow volumes in the past. A further search for these boulders, especially above the Skyline Rim to the west, would be an interesting follow up. Also, looking forward, a study attempting to establish evidence for joint control of some of the drainages would be very interesting. Also, a look at why the Lower and Upper Blue Hills levels are more dissected in the north than in the south would be worth taking, although this would necessitate several overnight or longer term EVAs, which would be worth doing in themselves.

Biomedical Engineering

There is an old saying in music - how do you get to Carnegie Hall? Answer: Practice! This is very true and also applicable to any future human Mars mission. Before we are in a position to put mankind on the red planet we should have done a lot of practice, or our great moment might not go as planned. The biomedical experiments carried out by this crew during our rotation are part of that practice - by developing a system which is able to actively monitor astronaut mobility we can assess the amount of physical activity they do, and if it falls below a predefined threshold, we can then correct it by ensuring they carry out enough supplemental exercise. This is vital research for any Mars expedition, as crew health is the number one priority in any deep space mission - it's one thing to put a man on Mars, the real feat of humanity will be to bring him home again.

Over the course of the two week rotation, five crew members were given pedometers in order to monitor the number of steps they took throughout the day. This was the first stage of a mobility assessment trial, carried out by Derek. At fixed intervals throughout each day he noted the subjects' pedometer readings.

Pedometers use different approaches with regards to the electronics and mechanics of the units, but they all contain mechanisms that detect movement. The most common approach involves a small metal arm that moves up and down as you walk. Each time the 'arm' moves, an electronic or manual counter is triggered, and thus, a step is counted (new pedometer systems that are entering the market use accelerometer sensors or GPS technology).

The objective of this research was to find out gross mobility patterns of planetary station crews primarily to improve exercise training regimes to supplement possible reduced movement due to the limited space of the living environment. This reduced movement is intuitive in a smaller work / living environment, but it is important to try to quantify it objectively with numbers as well as quantify it subjectively (e.g. questionnaires). One consequence of reduced movement is the lack of subsequent "calf muscle pumping" action of the body's venous blood flow return system (similar to Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) on airplanes - also known as Economy Class Syndrome).

Therefore with more accurate records of astronaut mobility patterns, medical staff will be able to design optimum exercise regimes (time of day and type of exercise) for space crews in order to maintain their peak physical health.

Each day the trial ran for 12hrs (0800-2000), and already preliminary analysis of the results are quite interesting. On one level, there exists a large difference in mobility between different crew members at the end of each day - suggesting that some crew functions involve more exercise than others. Also, although almost counter-intuitive in such a small living/work environment, things are actually quite positive with regards to gross average daily step patterns in general.

Although any information collected with pedometers should not be taken as absolute (due to inherent limitations such as false triggering etc), it does allow researchers to build up interesting pictures of mobility activity and therefore design mission plans / exercise regimes / habitat layout more efficiently.

One interesting "Mars effect" on the trial was the ruggedness of the terrain and its toll on some of the sensors - which is why it is important to think ahead and bring spares on any Mars / Utah mission!

The second stage of the MDRS mobility assessment at the Hab involved the use of accelerometers to monitor an astronaut's mobility using a pair of twin axial acceleration sensors. Phase I of this trial was the validation of the sensors' accuracy in determining various activities such as walking, climbing etc. Phase II was the actual long term logging of data of a planetary astronaut's day using the described system and from this data, building up a detailed picture of the astronaut's day from a biomedical perspective (eg. How much time were they sitting? How much walking did they do?). The unique environment of the MDRS allows this trial to examine the astronaut's mobility "in sim" both living in the Habitat and outside on EVA. Again each of the five crew members took part in the assessment and wore the devices for the day. A large amount of clinical data has been generated and will be examined in the detail over the coming weeks.

Astronomy and Biology

Tim, the crew's biologist and astronomer, worked with the radio telescope and the MUSK optical observatory, with help by email from Peter Detterline and John Samouce. With some effort, the radio telescope was brought online. It seems that the audio-in on the Hab Observatory laptop is non-functioning. So, the SkyPipe software was installed onto Kim Binsted's personal laptop, and data was examined there. Recently, there has not been much radio activity (within the sensitivity of the telescope). There were a few issues with the optical telescope. Specifically, the computer's case had been left off, and the computer was found with a massive amount of internal dust and oxidation on some interfaces. After isolating the problem (only the network card was entirely non-functional, even though the CD-ROM had been reporting errors during startup) the problem was corrected (with the help of Don Foutz's McGuyver-like tricks using that lovely Utah grit).

Once the basic functionality of the computer system was established, a two-star alignment was performed (under limited power, the telescope needed to be re-aligned for every use). The first image captured was of Jupiter and some of its moons. At first, the images from the telescope were very unfocused; in fact the telescope was focused in such a way that images were barely visible at all. The field-of-view in the secondary mirror was larger than the entire primary mirror. In the end, it took between 20 and 30 minutes, using RoboFocus' switches on the telescope mounting, to get a decent focus. Also, inclement weather, such as clouds, rain, and/or high winds, prevented the use of the optical telescope in the MUSK Observatory. Only the last two nights of the mission resulted in decent viewing - but what nights they were! We saw excellent images of Jupiter and Saturn, and managed to take some decent images of both.

Few biological, specifically exobiological, concerns were addressed, since colonial growth is essentially guaranteed (even in such a "barren" environment as Utah's high desert). However, the main considerations regarding searching for life on Mars were reflected in expedition choices. There were discussions, during EVA planning, about favoring sites with obvious evidence of liquid water (which is common in this location, despite it being a desert). Specifically, the interest would be focused on old standing water sites, as these may offer the best conditions for spotting signs of former life.

Primarily, the search for life on Mars should pay special attention to looking for biotic/pre-biotic materials more than microscopic fossils (fossils are rare, fossilized microbes are exceedingly rare). The most interesting materials would be amino acids. If found, they would tell us vast amounts about the nature of life (their chirality would be very interesting). We did not look for amino acids here (no centrifuge was available, and as stated previously, they would almost certainly be found). The main issues that are worth simulating, regarding the search for life, are site selection and collection procedures, both of which we practiced as much as possible.

Summary

One of the things that became apparent early on was the amount of maintenance that is required in this type of environment. After every EVA the suits had to be brushed off, put away, batteries recharged, the gloves and boots had to be cleaned and dried, and miscellaneous equipment put away, no matter how tired we were. Trash has to be properly disposed of, floors swept, and tools put away. Meal preparation and dish washing has to be planned and coordinated three times a day.

Other maintenance and repair tasks took up more time than we anticipated. Two trips to Grand Junction, CO, each about two and a half hours one way, were required to first take the 20 kW generator to a dealer for repair, and then to pick it up. The big blue pickup truck required new tires and a new battery, which meant a one hour trip to Green River to the nearest garage. We also chased down and fixed a problem with the taillights, so the truck can now be driven at night.

Aside from the science accomplishments, there were many personal triumphs. We learned the joys of grits at breakfast, the incredible number of stars visible on a clear desert night, inappropriate uses of spoons, the horror of encounters with space weasels, the taste of Utah grit, the joys of Shakespeare, and the vital importance of a good sense of humor. When we first came here we were strangers. Now we're a team.