Group Dynamics:

The main research topic of this proposal is to assess group dynamics within international all female and all male teams in a Mars simulation with intent to compare across groups for similarities and differences in performance, interpersonal functioning, group identity, coping and stress.

This research will follow on from the work done during several MDRS seasons by Dr. Sheryl Bishop (MDRS 6; Expedition One/MDRS 14; MDRS 26), Dr Steve Dawson, Dr Kate Reynolds, Dr Rachael Eggins (Expedition One/MDRS 14; MDRS 26) and Dr. Paul Maruff (MDRS 26). Composition variables such as personality and leadership styles, group size, cultural and gender mixes, role and power structures are frequently cited as areas that have affected group performance and impacted group functioning in the literature, by crews themselves and the support personnel around them (Kanas, 2001). The current proposed research is based on the notion that people act as both individuals and members of groups (e.g., a member of an expedition) and that they function most cohesively and cooperatively in a group if they identify with that group. This comes from two mainstream social psychological theories, social identity theory and self categorization theories (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner et al., 1987; Turner, 1991). To identify with a group means that people internalize as their own the values, norms and beliefs that define the group. The degree to which an aggregate of individuals actually functions successfully as a group is dependent on the existence of a shared group or social identity (Haslam, 2001). The situation becomes more complex where the achievement of overall goals relies on cooperation between a number of isolated sub-groups (Haslam et al., in press; Eggins et al., 2002). Positive group outcomes depend on the alignment of sub-group goals and those of the broader mission.

Group identification is significantly impacted by key individual factors, e.g., culture, personality, stress and coping responses, leadership. The key role that leadership plays in group functioning is also a reoccurring feature across national boundaries. The role of stress and its impact on coping, performance, motivation, behavior, cognitive functioning and psychological well being must also be taken into account. Since extreme environments are characterized by significant physical demands (e.g., skiing, climbing, EVA's) and well as inescapable environmental characteristics (e.g., imminent danger, noise, isolation, confinement, loss of normal sensory stimuli), an examination of the impact of prolong stress is required. The presence of even low levels of chronic stressor, if not met with functional adaptation and/or countermeasures, produces subjective symptoms of stress, persistent performance incompetence, accelerated fatigability, altered mood states, increased rate of infections, and decrements in attention and cognitive functioning (Palinkas, 1991; Ursin, 1991).

As a key composition variable, gender differences cut across both individual factors and group identity factors, impacting in significant ways on both. Generally, men and women differ in many arenas such as interaction and communication styles, need for affiliation, response to crowding, privacy and confined spaces. However, men and women in homogeneous groups interact in significantly different ways than those in mixed groups. The impact on group identity and, summarily, on group performance is a key focus of this investigation.

Extreme environments allow us to examine various aspects of the psycho-physiological relationship that is essential to fully understand the adaptation of humans to the stresses of these environments. When teams or individuals operate in extreme environments, their responses are more purely a product of either situational drivers or internal personal characteristics. The Mars Society Utah Desert Simulation Facility provides a unique opportunity to examine the interaction of salient individual factors such as gender and personality factors on social relationships and group identity. In this research we will investigate the impact of personality, group and sub-group identity and goal alignment on motivation, effort to achieve group goals, and effective communication both within a particular group and between subgroups (including "mission control"). There will also be a number of personal well-being measures will be included (e.g., stress, cognitive functioning). In addition to this there will be a number of measures, which will attempt to assess, which self categorizations are utilized by individuals over the course of the mission. Other issues to be investigated will include group polarization and ostracism. Participants will complete a regular (e.g., daily) on-line survey log incorporating measures of the variables of interest (all of which are part of our ongoing research program). The instrument will require approximately 10 minutes to complete. The main analysis will explore the statistical relationship between personality, identification, group goals and group and personal functioning.

Methodology

1. Assessing socio-psychological issues relevant to a human mission to Mars:
   • Personality tests;
   • Group functioning
   • Group Identity
   All participants will be administered the Astro-PCI, a battery of pen and paper psychological questionnaires that assess various dimensions of personality. On a regular basis (e.g., daily) participants will be asked to complete a questionnaire that includes a range of items designed to measure; (a) sub-group group (i.e., different research areas represented at the habitat site and mission control) and superordinate project identification (i.e., identification with the broader mission - the superordinate group), (b) group goals and goal alignment between sub-groups and those of the broader mission, (c) group processes (motivation, commitment, cohesiveness, pro-social behaviour), (d) sub-group relations (working relationship between teams, pro-social behaviour towards members of different sub-groups), (e) range of self categorizations, (f) group and sub group polarization, (g) ostracism and pressure to conform to group norms and (h) personal functioning (fatigue, stress, well-being). Some of the measures used to assess these variables have already been developed and used in Expedition One (see Eggins et al., 2002), while a small number have yet to be finalized.
   
   
2. Analyzing neurocognitive issues relevant to a human mission to Mars:
   • Stress measurements: Cortisol and SIgA levels and subjective surveys;
   • Measurement of individual crewmember performance evolution using the "Coghealth" software.

Concurrent with group identity research the team proposes evaluation of a relatively new and sensitive measure of neuropsychological function, Cogstate as a objective measure of stress and fatigue. A number of authors have noted that, in microgravity, humans perform tasks more slowly due to degradation of perceptual motor performance (Fowler, Comfort & Bock, 2000; Manzey 2000). This may be due to the direct effect of microgravity on the central nervous system or non-specific effects of multiple stressors & further research is deemed important to ensure safe operations aboard the International Space Station and during a mission to Mars (Fowler et al, 2000). Research in an analogue environment can help determine to what extent multiple stressors cause this degradation and the nature of these stressors.

Manzey (2000) argues that early detection of any signs of cognitive performance impairment is essential for mission success. The study suggests that the most sensitive monitoring measures are those of perceptual motor tasks such as tracking and tasks which place high demand on attentional processes e.g. dual tasks.

At present we plan to use three measures of stress: a self-report measure of stress that corresponds with indicators of anxiety included in the DSM-IV (1994); salivary cortisol assays for physiological arousal; and a computerized neurocognitive assessment, Cogstate.

Methodology

Coghealth is self-administered, automatically scored and requires about 15-20 minutes to complete. Subtests merge into one another and utilize familiar visual forms (playing cards) which instruct the subject of the rules of each test by demonstration and feedback only. An almost infinite number of forms are available due to randomization and variably timed binary choices. Speed and accuracy are measured and integrated over subtests.

All tasks use the same universally-recognized playing card stimuli creating a game-like quality to the interface. Users can practice the tasks using interactive demonstrations. The instrument includes very brief ratings of factors such as fatigue, perceived stress on 5 point Likert scales.

Research Objectives & Hypotheses

Research Goals

1. Develop a greater understanding of group processes at work in a Mars analogue setting.
   
   
   1. Examine the role of group identification and goal alignment on group functioning.
      
      
      1. Study & characterize identification by team members with sub-groups (eg. geologists, biologists), groups (eg. field science team; system team) and the superordinate group (the broader mission)
      2. Study & characterize group goals and goal alignment between sub-groups and those of the broader mission
      3. Examine the impact of personality variables and group functions on 'positive group outcomes'[1], individual performance[2] and stress[3].
   1. Study & characterize the impact of group function and personality variables on positive group outcomes
   2. Study & characterize the impact of group function and personality variables on individual performance (neurocognitive
   3. Study & characterize the impact of group function and personality variables on perceived individual
   4. Assess the relationship between restricted range of self categorizations, subgroup and superordinate group identification and group functioning.
   5. Assess issues of ostracism and motivation to conform to group norms in connection with the potential use of a restricted range of self categorizations.
2. Develop an understanding of the relative effectiveness of different neurocognitive measures for determining crew performance in a Mars analogue setting
   
   
   1. Produce profiles of crew neurocognitive function using Coghealth, a more recently developed computerized battery sensitive to subtle changes in cognitive function
   a. Collect data on working memory, divided attention & other neuropsychological functions
   1. Produce a table and data analysis outlining the relative strengths and weaknesses of the instruments above as measures of crew neurocognitive performance
3. Correlate Coghealth scores with self-report measures of stress and physiological indicators of stress (Cortisol and SIgA).

1. Investigate mismatches between self report, neurological and physiological indicators.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses under examination are that:

1. Coghealth will yield sensitive, reliable and diagnostic indicators of human performance and well-being in a Mars analogue environment which correlate significantly with more established measures such as subjective crew ratings and physiological measures.
   
   
2. Through it's sensitivity to factors such as stress, fatigue and degradation of attention and memory performance, Coghealth findings will also correlate significantly with measures of group and sub-group identity and goal alignment as outlined in Part A of this proposal.
   
   
3. Coghealth measures will correlate significantly with personality measures of crew.
   
   
4. Integration of theoretical underpinnings and empirical findings from the three data types above will yield new insights into group and individual function relevant to crew selection, training and intervention into performance deficits during both analog and actual extended human space missions.

Sample

An important assumption in this study is that members of the each crew (female and male teams) had a common previous experience (like in a real space mission crew): the members have indeed met during the ISU Summer Session Program 2004 in Adelaide Australia.

In order to guarantee a good diversity of academic backgrounds and nationalities in the group, even if some availability problems occur at the time of the rotation, it was decided to form a group of 12 people (6 primary and 6 backup crewmembers) for each crew.

Scientific Objectives for MarsSkin

The current gas-pressurised suits are not suited to the EVA needs of future Martian exploration. The suits are rigid shells that severely inhibit astronaut mobility, and they are also heavy, bulky, leaky, potentially unsafe and require high maintenance. The MDRS suits are a simulation of these gas-pressurised suits.

An alternative to gas-pressurisation is mechanical counter pressure (MCP), a pressure method in which the body is physically compressed by tight elastics rather than with a gas. Suits of this style are light, flexible and intrinsically safe. They can also be stowed in a much smaller volume than gas suits. MCP suits are ideally suited to Martian missions, as they are light enough to be carried in the significant gravity and yet flexible and safe enough to allow for effective exploration of the surface. Gas suits fail on all of these issues.

The Mars Society of Australia has developed simulation MCP suits via the MarsSkin project. These suits will be brought to MDRS by the Project Manager, James Waldie, and trialled in tandem with the standard MDRS suits. The main focus will be on full-body performance, however glove studies will be performed and compared with naked hand performance as well. The gloves are identified as the main weakness in current space suits, as the hands are the major form of interaction an astronaut has with the environment, and because the gloves are notoriously difficult to engineer as a flexible and tactile gas-pressurised garment. Full body and glove trials will involve timed tests of representative EVA tasks. Such tasks will be of engineering or scientific in nature, such as using screwdrivers and wrenches to tighten a series of screws and nuts, or stooping and kneeling to pick up rocks and place them in sample bags and suit pockets. They may also include typing on a keyboard to simulate the interaction of a suited astronaut with his/her suit. The subjects will practice the tasks so that any effects due to familiarity or experience are reduced or nullified before the actual timed glove trials, and the tasks will be capable of being repeated with little variation for a consistent challenge. Previous trials of this nature have been performed at MDRS during Expedition 1 (Crew 14) and in Arkaroola in South Australia during Expedition 2. The results have indicated that the MCP gloves cause average task times to increase by 50% for the MCP gloves and more than 200% for the gas-gloves. The studies of Crew 39, however, will include full-body trials for the first time.

These tests will give a quantitative appreciation of the difference between the predicted performance of gas-pressurised and MCP suited astronauts on the surface of Mars, giving justification or not to further MCP development. It will also provide a measurement between the deficit between normal clothed and suited performance to give insight into the future workrates of Martian field workers.

Geology

1. Collect samples of rocks with endolithic organisms. Endoliths are organisms that live within rocks, typically in the first 2 mm. The collected samples will be shipped to a laboratory at the Kennedy Space Center where they will be placed in a Mars environment chamber to test for survivability of the organisms in a Mars environment.
   
   
2. A forward contamination study will be conducted in cooperation with Johnson Space Center. Samples will be taken in the Hab, along ATV trails, and in areas where there is little evidence of human travel. The samples will be processed in a laboratory at the Johnson Space Center to test for the extent of human contamination at the site. A similar study has been conducted at the Mars Analog site on Devon Island. This study will provide another set of data to extend the previous study done on Devon Island.
   
   
3. The Geologist will be supported by a PDA application that should provide an easy interface to collect detailed standard information such as GPS location, type of rock, etc. We will evaluate the usability of this application comparing it to standard GPS coupled with a notebook and pen.
   
   
4. The Geologist will work with the CRV crew to evaluate the utility of the CRV for geologic exploration in difficult to reach locations. We will attempt to extend the studies at locations specified by Crew 36.

Crew Logistics

We will be collecting data on equipment mass , supplies, etc. as well as how the crew spends it's time throughout the day. We will reduce the data after the mission and look at events like keep alive duties (eating, sleeping, cooking, equipment repair, etc) versus time spent doing exploration, research and science studies. This data will be correlated with information from other extreme environments such as Antarctic meteorite hunting expeditions and the Apollo missions. This study is done in cooperation with the Johnson Space Center and SAIC.

CRV

Mounting and operating the CRV in the hab and outside using the mars space suits and gloves. The mounting operation could be performed inside the Hab at first (depending on the room available), then outside using the space suits and gloves. The times required for these operations could be measured and compared.

The crew in charge of operating the CRV could also evaluate what is the best number of operators in terms of time and efficiency. Test the CRV in various areas on cliffs of different inclination and different geological nature. The CRV could be brought in various terrains around the Hab. Transportation to these locations could be provided either by a motorised vehicle if available or on foot.

The crew in charge of the CRV could take advantage of these opportunities to propose different solutions for the vehicle transportation strategy (dragged on foot after being mounted, carried and then mounted on site.) The choice of the terrains could be discussed with the available specialists (geologist) and the crew commander. The results of the operations could then be analysed by the same specialists, who could provide a feedback and propose other terrains or ways to operate the CRV in order to improve the results for the following operations.

Comparison with GPS measurements

The crew will be equipped of a GPS receiver. The choice of the terrain or the geometry of the cliff could be analysed using GPS measurements before using the CRV.

Thermal Hardware

Sample return vehicles or other spacecraft returning back to Earth will be using thermal hardware (MLI, OSR, louvers, heat pipes, etc.). Either mechanical or thermal parts of returning spacecraft , will be affected by re-entry on atmosphere or by landing. Repairs or substitution of these parts are, therefore, very likely. Assess and adapt mounting procedures and configurations of thermal hardware with bulky space-suit gloves. This study is directly related to the Suits comparison study and to the EVAs.

ECLS

Together with the ECLS group at ESA, the crew will keep track of all the information related to food and its nutrition facts. This information will be lumped in a database and used to prepare meal plans for long term exploration missions.

Cloud Observation

Cloud observations will be conducted as part of the CERES S'COOL project hosted at NASA Langley Research Center. Visual observations corresponding to satellite remote sensing data provides valuable information about how well the satellite and scientific analysis are performing.

Outreach

Through a webcast transmission a few experiments will be performed on request from a group of students from a Canadian school. The students will be looking into mounting times on the Hab and into emergency evacuation procedures.

1. In operational terms positive group outcome is defined as perceived effectiveness of relationships and accomplishment of mission goals. Specific measures will be used for each of these.
   
   
2. In operational terms individual performance is defined as performance on neurocognitive tests
   
   
3. In operational terms stress refers to elevated scores on the subjective stress instruments and elevations in cortisol and SIgA.